We tend to think of science as neutral — a search for truth, a tool for understanding the world. But in early America, science often wasn’t used to discover truth. It was used to justify the society people in power wanted to build.
That meant science wasn’t leading policy — policy was shaping what counted as “science.”
And the goal wasn’t accuracy. It was control.
Throughout the 1700s and 1800s, a wave of pseudoscientific theories emerged that claimed to “prove” the natural superiority of some groups and the inferiority of others. These ideas weren’t random; they aligned almost perfectly with the political and economic interests of the time.
Once we see that pattern, it becomes clear: early racial “science” wasn’t science at all. It was a set of stories dressed up in scientific language to justify laws, labor systems, and social hierarchies — stories whose influence still shows up today.
The rise of these theories had three main drivers:
As slavery expanded, so did the demand for a “natural” explanation that could morally defend it.
If inequality could be framed as biology rather than policy, the entire system became easier to maintain.
Scientists across Europe were sorting plants, animals, skulls, and societies.
Once classification became fashionable, classifying people was inevitable.
Moments of Black resistance, Indigenous sovereignty, and broader multiracial cooperation created anxiety among those in power. They turned to “science” to stabilize a system they feared losing.
These pressures produced a set of racial theories that shaped America for generations.
From skull measurements to made-up moral scales, early American racial theories recycled the same flawed logic:
Claim: Skull size determined intelligence and character.
Reality: These measures were manipulated, cherry-picked, and never predictive — but widely used to justify hierarchy.
Claim: Different racial groups came from entirely different origins.
Reality: This contradicted both science and religious doctrine, but gained traction because it helped justify inequality.
Claim: Climate made certain groups lazy, immoral, or unfit for citizenship.
Reality: It was simply a way to frame exploitation as nature.
Claim: Cultures could be placed on a ladder from “primitive” to “advanced.”
Reality: Whose achievements counted, and whose didn’t, always matched the interests of those writing the rankings.
These ideas weren’t fringe. They were published, taught, debated, and embedded into policy.
These theories justified enslavement, denied access to education, and positioned Black people as “naturally suited” for servitude — a narrative built entirely on fabricated science.
Pseudoscience claimed Indigenous people were “vanishing,” “inferior,” or “destined” to be displaced — all to rationalize land seizure, forced removal, and assimilation policies.
Theories that equated poverty with “inferiority” harmed poor European-descended families, positioning economic hardship as a biological flaw instead of a policy outcome.
Irish, Italian, Jewish, Chinese, Mexican, and Eastern European immigrants all faced pseudoscientific labeling that questioned their intelligence, morality, or “fitness” for citizenship.
Scientific claims that women were intellectually weaker, overly emotional, or “unsuited” for public life shaped laws on voting, property, and education.
Pseudoscience wasn’t targeting one group — it created a hierarchy that sorted everyone.
The power of these racial theories wasn’t in the books themselves — it was in how lawmakers used them.
They shaped:
These policies didn’t just reflect racism; they manufactured it.
Even though the theories have been debunked, their fingerprints remain:
Bad science may fade, but the systems built on it don’t disappear without intentional repair.
These theories weren’t just inaccurate — they were strategic.
They allowed inequality to look “natural,” making harmful policies easier to defend.
Understanding this helps us:
This history gives us tools to question — and rebuild — the systems around us.
Smithsonian Anthro Notes — Race and Science
https://anthropology.si.edu/resources/race/
National Library of Medicine — Medical Myths Rooted in Slavery
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
PBS — Race: The Power of an Illusion (Science Episode)
https://www.pbs.org/race/
Library of Congress — Scientific Racism in the 19th Century
https://www.loc.gov/
American Philosophical Society — Early Racial Science Collections
https://www.amphilsoc.org/